Spirituality and Definition of Health Peer Reviewed Articles
Introduction
Almost twenty years agone, following the commencement of the positive psychology motion, the research approach in the areas of psychology, particularly those concerning mental health, began to change, concentrating on a much greater interest in well-beingness than on mere diseases or disorders (Bhullar et al., 2014). 2 main directions have emerged in well-being research: one based on a hedonistic arroyo and the other on eudaimonia. According to the hedonistic approach, well-being is concerned with affective pleasure in someone'due south life (Watson et al., 1988). The term subjective well-being (SWB) is used in positive psychology in the sense of a high level of positive impact, a low level of negative affect, and a high degree of satisfaction with 1's life (Deci and Ryan, 2008). In contrast, in the eudaemonist approach, well-being is perceived as the caste to which people function so that they could realize their full potential (Waterman, 1993). In publications on positive psychology eudaimonism is ofttimes synonymous with psychological well-being (PWB; Ryan and Deci, 2001).
Recently, the primary direction in studies of determinants of well-being has focused on subjective well-being (Diener, 2000). Demographic determinants (Argyle, 1999), cerebral and motivational determinants (Lyubomirsky, 2001), and personality determinants (Park, et al., 2004) of subjective well-being have been identified. Less attending is currently paid to psychological well-existence, however, some enquiry indicated religion and spirituality to be significant PWB implications (Levin and Chatters, 1998; Lawler-Row and Elliott, 2009) and revealed associations between pro-health behaviors, spirituality, and well-being (Boswell et al., 2006). At present, in a holistic view of wellness beyond biological and psychosocial well-being, the spiritual dimension of well-being is often discussed. This new construct is defined as a sense of connection with others, sense of life, and relationship with a transcendent force. It has psychosocial and religious components, and it is believed to promote spiritual health (Ghaderi et al., 2018; Alborzi et al., 2019). The present written report attempts to gain a meliorate insight into relationships betwixt spirituality, health-related behavior, and psychological well-being with regard to the type of acquired teaching.
Theoretical Background
Psychological Well-Being
The reply to the question "What does information technology mean to feel well psychologically?" needs to be sought in literature on humanistic psychology, including developmental and health psychology (Ryff, 1989). Ryff created a multidimensional construct of well-being, edifice on such concepts equally bones life tendencies of Buhler (1935), psychosocial stages of Erikson (1959), personality changes of Neugarten (1973), positive criteria of mental health of Jahoda (1958), account of individuation of Jung (1933), formulation of maturity of Allport (1961), depiction of the fully-functioning person of Rogers (1961), and notion of self-actualization of Maslow (1968).
Psychological well-beingness covers a wide range of welfare including positive assessments of oneself and one'due south past life (Cocky-Acceptance), a sense of continued growth and evolution as a person (Personal Growth), the belief that one's life is purposeful and meaningful (Purpose in Life), the possession of quality relations with others (Positive Relations With Others), the capacity to manage effectively one's life and the surrounding earth (Environmental Mastery), and a sense of self-determination (Autonomy; Ryff and Keyes, 1995, p. 720). Ryff and Vocalist (1998) besides adult a measure to assess the higher up six distinct factors of positive psychological operation.
Both the model and the measure came under review. The former was criticized for the lack of independence of individual scales (Springer and Hausner, 2006). Co-ordinate to diverse researchers, Personal Growth, Purpose in Life, Cocky-Acceptance, and Environmental Mastery practise class a single scale. The latter was criticized for its lack of factorial validity or internal consistency (van Dierendonck, 2004). However, some other studies supported the six-cistron PWB model (Ryff and Singer, 2006; van Dierendonck et al., 2008) and also revealed the existence of a single college-order PWB factor in a higher place the subscales (Keyes et al., 2002).
The concept of PWB corresponds to the WHO definition of health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not but the absence of illness or infirmity, formulated in 1948 (WHO, 1948). A high level of PWB is associated with a lower risk of depression (Ryff and Keyes, 1995; Fava, 1999), a lower possibility of displaying take a chance beliefs (Yonker et al., 2012), and a decreased immune cell expression of a conserved transcriptional response to arduousness (CTRA; Fredrickson et al., 2015).
Spirituality
According to Joseph et al. (2017, p. 506), spirituality should be understood as "a more general, unstructured, personalized, and naturally occurring phenomenon, where a person seeks closeness and/or connectedness between him/herself and a college power or purpose." Other authors define spirituality in terms of search for universal truth and as an activity enabling people to discover meaning and significance in the surrounding earth (Woods and Ironson, 1999). Spirituality can also be perceived as a dynamic reality, constantly exploring something new; it may likewise involve the learning of the ultimate boundaries of existence and seeking a broader meaning of life. Hart (1994, p. 23) defined spirituality as a mode in which an individual experiences his or her faith in everyday life and style "in which the individual refers to the final conditions of individual existence."
Spirituality therefore forms a multidimensional theoretical construct. In essence, it constitutes transcendence understood as going beyond or higher up "the existent I." In this context, spirituality is defined as experiencing transcendence through inner peace, harmony, or connectedness to others (Boswell et al., 2006). Transcendence can take place both within the person (self-realization, self-comeback, and personal development) and exterior the person. "External" transcendence may be directed to a higher entity or free energy; to another person, claimed to exist of particular value, whose adept is more important than one'south own good; or to the universe (Heszen-Niejodek and Gruszyńska, 2004). Spirituality differs from religion every bit the latter is rather linked with specific rituals, institutional dependencies, and social relationships, whereas the erstwhile is more about personal experience of what is unseen and recognized as greater than ourselves (Tovar-Murray, 2011). Thoresen (1998) claims that religion is perceived mainly as a social miracle, while spirituality is normally considered at the individual level and inside a specific context. Despite their common transcendence-related roots, spirituality and religiosity may not be treated interchangeably. These are different areas, however, overlapping in their meaning (Krok, 2009a).
Heszen-Niejodek and Gruszyńska (2004) sympathise transcendence as a mutual denominator for many concepts of spirituality. The two-style agreement of transcendence, described to a higher place equally self-improvement and equally a turn toward a higher-being, makes it possible to examine the phenomenon of spirituality using the methodology of psychological sciences, without questioning theological and philosophical perspectives (Krok, 2009a).
Studies demonstrated the positive impact of spirituality on physical health and mental health as well as on other positive health outcomes such as subjective well-being, wellness-related quality of life, coping skills, recovering from mental illness, or less addictive or suicidal behaviors (Mueller et al., 2001; Miller and Thoresen, 2003; Kharitonov, 2012; Unterrainer et al., 2014). However, we must carry in heed that spirituality is a complex construct and as such information technology is divers in multiple ways and measured with dissimilar tools (Lun and Bond, 2013).
In our report, nosotros used the Cocky-Reported Questionnaire past Heszen-Niejodek and Gruszyńska (2004), in which the overall cistron Spirituality consists of Religious Attitudes (religious experiences, their importance in everyday life, their influence on moral choices and behavior, and relationship to God); Ethical Sensitivity (loftier identify of ethical values in the hierarchy of values, our compliance with them, and tendency toward upstanding reflection); and Harmony (seeking harmony with the world, internal consistency, and cohesion of various forms of one'due south own activity). These dimensions reflect the primary manifestations of spirituality available in internal experience, distinguished on the footing of descriptions of specific manifestations of spirituality in psychological literature (Hill et al., 2000; Socha, 2000; Thoresen and Harris, 2002), subsequently ordered according to the same directions of transcendence (me, God, other people, and the earth).
Health-Related Behavior
Lifestyle and lifestyle-related health behaviors are some of the determinants of health potential (Binkowska-Bury et al., 2010). A wellness behavior is whatever activity undertaken to prevent or detect affliction or to improve health and well-being (Conner and Norman, 1996). In studies on wellness behavior and behavioral modify, wellness behaviors are normally divided into those associated with physical activity, nutrition, and the employ of psychoactive substances (Norman et al., 2008). However, there are currently other more popular approaches that consider multiple lifestyle-forming health behaviors, between which different interactions take place (op. cit).
The present study uses an approach that distinguishes 4 categories of health-related behaviors: (a) proper nutrition habits (eating proper nutrient and keeping a well-balanced diet); (b) prophylaxis (obeying wellness recommendations and obtaining health and affliction information); (c) positive mental attitude (fugitive emotional overload, stress, or depressing situations); and (d) pro-wellness practices (good sleeping habits, relaxation, and physical activeness; Juczyński, 2009).
The positive impact of health-related behavior on subjective well-being has already been the subject of studies on various age groups: adolescents (Shaffer-Hudkins, 2011; Sacker, 2012), academy students (Binkowska-Bury et al., 2010), and older adults (Boswell et al., 2006). However, little is still known most the precise relationship between health-related beliefs and psychological well-beingness. Moreover, there have been very few studies regarding the impact of spirituality on health-related behavior, although the onetime was recognized as one of four dimensions of health (Harris et al., 1999).
Nowadays Study
The main aim of this study was to examine the relationship betwixt spirituality, health-related behavior, type of caused education, and psychological well-existence. To achieve this goal, a path assay was conducted. It is considered one of a few possible statistical approaches addressing the trouble of spirituality and health, recommended past Miller and Thoresen (2003). The path model helps to verify assumed relationships betwixt a fix of variables represented equally a structure of the tested model, which is based on theoretical associations between the variables. It also provides a framework for the analysis of the directly, indirect, and full effects, whose form provides an analytical basis for interpreting moderation effects (Alwin and Hausner, 1975; Miller and Thoresen, 2003). Directly effects are regression coefficients representing the structural components of the model; indirect effects are parts of causal influence transmitted by intervening moderator and mediator variables; and full effects are the totals of direct and indirect furnishings (Alwin and Hausner, 1975; Pearl, 2012). Information technology must be highlighted that although path assay implies causality, it cannot be inferred from the gathered information since it is cantankerous-sectional (Bollen and Pearl, 2013). The directions of the relations in the model were based on the mentioned literature, nevertheless the model itself was not aimed at testing causal furnishings. The path analysis was used to disaggregate, quantify, and compare the magnitude of associations betwixt the variables (Miller and Thoresen, 2003; Bollen and Pearl, 2013). The model used in this study is illustrated in Figure one.
Effigy one. The structure of the theoretical model. Solid lines designate theoretical relations of interest and dashed lines represent control variables.
The focus of this model was to approximate a hypothetical construction of associations of psychological well-being, health-related behaviors, spirituality, and blazon of acquired education, with age and sex beingness two control variables.
Full general Hypothesis
On the footing of existing enquiry (Levin and Chatters, 1998; Boswell et al., 2006; Lawler-Row and Elliott, 2009; Yonker et al., 2012; Archana and Updesh, 2014), we assumed that spirituality and health-related behaviors were factors which could be positively associated with psychological well-being. We besides supposed that both factors had a positive relationship with subjective well-being. Moreover, since spirituality has been proven to reduce the odds of health-risk behavior (Jesse and Reed, 2004; see also Unterrainer et al., 2014) and is associated with a college level of wellness-beliefs (Park et al., 2009); we hypothesized that spirituality would also be associated with health-related behavior.
Researchers indicate that the acquired knowledge virtually health has a pregnant impact on exhibited wellness behaviors (White et al., 2009; Muennig et al., 2011; Sørensen et al., 2012; Yokokawa et al., 2016). Thus, the university students who were invited to take part in our research attended report programs primarily concerned with either concrete health and the human body or with psychosocial health and the human mind and spirit. The get-go grouping comprised students whose written report curricula included primarily biological sciences subjects such as anatomy, homo physiology, biomechanics besides equally other professional courses preparing students to pursue a professional career in, for case, kinesiology. The second group consisted of students whose report curricula included subjects in the humanities and social sciences such every bit developmental psychology, social psychology, psychology of mental disorders, philosophy, etc. In the offset group, the acquired noesis predisposed students to develop a biomedical approach to health; in the second group, the accent was placed on psychosocial health and, consequently, on developing a socio-ecological arroyo to wellness.
It could be assumed that studies that prepare for concrete health-related occupations may contribute to a large extent to the development of a body-axial approach in the students. Among many possible health behaviors, there are those directly related to the biological dimension of health, including physical activity and diet, and less concentrated on psychosocial skills and behaviors. Conversely, students educated in the humanities and social sciences, due to their dominant curriculum subjects, may be more focused on developing their potential in the area of psychosocial and spiritual health rather than concrete health.
Materials and Methods
Participants
The written report was conducted among 595 students from six Polish universities: 295 majoring in physical health, physiotherapy, and tourism and recreation (pedagogy about the human body) and 300 students majoring in psychology, pedagogy, or theology (education about the homo mind and spirit). The study comprised 387 (65%) women and 208 (35%) men, aged 18–xxx years (Thousand = 21.67; SD = 1.88). Table ane contains descriptive statistics of the variables used in the report.
Tabular array 1. Hateful and standard deviations for the whole group and split groups according to students' type of education and gender.
The research was carried out at selected universities in southern and central Poland. Later on obtaining the consent of the management of a given university institute and the lecturer in accuse of the class, on a designated day, the researchers asked students to fill in a set of questionnaires. Each report lasted xxx min on average. After completing the questionnaires the collected data were transferred to a spreadsheet and double-checked.
Measures
Psychological Well-Being
The PWB measure is based on the eudemonistic concept of well-being developed past Ryff (1989). In our written report, we used Polish accommodation by Krok (2009b). The questionnaire contains 42 items in half dozen subscales: Self-Credence, Personal Growth, Purpose in Life, Positive Relations with Others, Environmental Mastery, and Autonomy. The items are assessed on a 7-point Likert scale (from 1 – strongly disagree to 7 – strongly concord). It is besides possible to calculate the full general factor of psychological well-being equally a mean value of half dozen subscales. The internal consistency indicator for the whole calibration was α = 0.914.
Self-Study Questionnaire
The self-report questionnaire was developed by Heszen-Niejodek and Gruszczyńska (2004) and Metlak (2002) to measure the level of spirituality. It consists of 20 statements assessed on a five-point Likert scale (from 1 – definitely not to 5 – definitely yes). The results are calculated separately for the whole scale every bit well as for three individual subscales: Religious Attitudes (sample item: "I experience God's beloved for me straight or through other people"), Ethical Sensitivity (sample item: "When making decisions, I wonder if I'm acting morally"), and Harmony (sample item: "I experience deep inner peace"). The reliability indicator for the spirituality calibration was α = 0.903.
Inventory of Health-Related Beliefs
This questionnaire is intended to measure out health behaviors and contains five scales: a full general wellness behaviors rate and its 4 indicators: proper nutrition habits, prophylaxis, positive mental attitude, and pro-wellness practices. The inventory was developed by Juczyński (2009) based on terms of health behaviors developed by Gochman (1988) and available tools for testing wellness practices including the Reported Health Behaviors Checklist (Prohaska et al., 1985). It contains 24 statements describing various types of wellness-related behaviors (sample items: "I avoid consuming food with preservatives," "I regularly utilize for medical examinations") with their frequency assessed on a 5-point Likert calibration (from 1 – near never to 5 – well-nigh always). The internal consistency index value for the health behaviors calibration was α = 0.821.
Belittling Strategy
Path analysis was used to model the potential moderating role of education blazon, age, and gender in the relationship betwixt the variables included in the model. The blazon of caused education as representing groups primarily focused on either spirituality or health-related behaviors coded dichotomously: 0 = education focused on physical wellness and the human being torso equally the reference grouping and 1 = education focused on the human mind and spirit. The unstandardized path coefficient of the type of education is thus interpreted as "to larn education on psychosocial health and the human mind and spirit," and its value represents mean differences between the two groups. Gender was coded similarly, i.east., 0 = men and 1 = women. Additionally, a linear regression assay was conducted to further examine the noted relationships between both types of education.
Results
The analysis was conducted using the Mplus 7 software package (Muthén and Muthén, 2012) and tested the model shown in Figure ane. Alternative models with different path directions caused the aforementioned fit as the tested model (AIC = 5886.629, Sample-Size Adapted BIC = 5901.195). The tested model is non-recursive and just-identified, thus, no statistic for absolute model fit can be assessed since they are uninformative. The model coefficients were calculated applying interpretation based on the maximum likelihood. Standardized coefficients (StdYX) are presented in Figure two. Tabular array 2 contains both unstandardized and standardized coefficients. The paths were tested using the standard Sobel test (Sobel, 1982), yet due to some arguments of untrustworthiness (Hayes and Scharkow, 2013), 95% confidence intervals from a percentile-based bootstrap with 10,000 draws were also used.
Figure two. The tested model with standardized coefficients (standard errors in brackets).
Tabular array two. Unstandardized and standardized estimates, standard errors, p, and bootstrap C.I. for paths in the model (n = 595).
The results indicated that both spirituality and health-related behaviors were straight related with psychological well-beingness (p < 0.001). Spirituality showed a positive relationship with wellness-related behaviors (p < 0.001). An indirect path of spirituality on psychological well-being through wellness-related behaviors was likewise distinguished (p < 0.001). The indirect relationship quantified the changes in well-being which are predicted by health-related behaviors associated with spirituality aside from the direct relationship (Alwin and Hauser, 1975). The structure of the model was theoretically well-established and the relationships had moderate sizes as represented by standardized coefficients, which suggested that they are justified and might exist replicated in further research.
The direct relationship between the type of acquired instruction and psychological well-being was non pregnant (1000 0 = 4.52, SD 0 = 0.31; M one = 4.55, SD i = 0.33; p = 0.305) too as the relationship between education type and health-related behavior (M 0 = 77.18, SD 0 = 12.11; Thousand ane = 78.35, SD one = 12.90; p = 0.093), which demonstrated that both variables did not differ significantly between groups. The relationship betwixt the type of education and spirituality was stronger in the homo mind and spirit group (M 0 = 3.41, SD 0 = 0.55; Yard 1 = iii.73, SD 1 = 0.56; p < 0.001). Too an indirect human relationship of type of education and health-related behavior through spirituality was observed (p < 0.001), although information technology was rather weak.
Although no direct relationship between psychological well-being and type of education was establish, indirect relationships were note with spirituality (p < 0.001) and both spirituality and health-related behavior (p < 0.001), but not with health-related behavior solitary. Although these relationships are not direct, the results propose that acquiring education on psychosocial wellness and the human mind and spirit might be associated with a stronger relationship of spirituality and wellness-related behaviors with psychological well-being.
Gender and historic period were control variables in the model since both are known to touch the type of didactics. More than women attended studies focused on educational activity about the man listen and spirit (n f = 221) than men (n thou = 79), whereas the gender ratio in concrete health and the human trunk group of students was more counterbalanced (north f = 166 vs. n yard = 129). This led to a number of relationships between gender and the type of academy studies (p < 0.001). In event, some indirect relationships between gender and the blazon of studies were significant, whereas direct relationships were not. Age was slightly college in the homo listen and spirit group. The difference was meaning (M 0 = 21.xv, SD 0 = ane.56; M 1 = 22.xxx, SD 1 = two.20; p < 0.001), thus, some indirect relationships with age were significant with the type of acquired university education.
Although path models assume causal inference, we should acquit in mind that all causally related factors that were excluded from the model are by definition represented in the form of fault terms (Pearl, 2012). The variance of psychological well-being explained by this model was R 2 = 0.175, which means that a large portion of it is accounted for in sources other than variables contained in the model.
To proceeds a better insight into the role of instruction in the relationship of health-related behaviors, spirituality, and psychological well-beingness, a linear regression analysis with moderation terms was conducted (Table 3). The constant value (b 0) represents the intercept of a group whose education is focused on the human being trunk, whereas the predictor type of education corresponds to the deviation betwixt the grouping ways. The intercept of psychological well-being was significantly lower (b = −0.495; p = 0.010) in the human mind and spirit group. The coefficient of health-related beliefs in the grouping educated in physical health and the human body was pregnant (health-related behavior, b = 0.005; p = 0.001), and the homo mind and spirit grouping did not differ from information technology significantly (Health-related behavior * Education = ane, b = 0.002; p = 0.455). The human relationship between spirituality and psychological well-being was meaning too (Spirituality, b = 0.113; p = 0.001) but the gradient was steeper in the human mind and spirit group (Spirituality * Education = i, b = 0.098; p = 0.029; Figure 3). It can exist thus ended that spirituality has a stronger relationship with psychological well-existence in university students whose curricula focus on the psychosocial dimension of health and the human being mind and spirit.
Table 3. Results of the regression model predicting psychological well-being depending on wellness-related behavior, spirituality, and the type of education (n = 595).
Figure 3. Correlation between spirituality and psychological well-being in grouping focused on homo trunk (A; r = 0.273, n 0 = 295) and human listen and spirit (B; r = 0.414, n one = 300).
Discussion
The study revealed significant relationships between spirituality, health-related behaviors, and psychological well-being, in terms of the type of acquired education. The results indicate that both spirituality and health-related behaviors were associated with psychological well-being. The relationship between spirituality and psychological well-existence was stronger in the man mind and spirit group of students. As longitudinal studies among adolescents past Kor et al. (2019) show spirituality is stable over time and contribute to meliorate subjective well-being. Information technology may also be considered to be a cardinal character strength and a crucial factor of positive development. Thus, spirituality may as well strengthen psychological well-being. Moreover, Giannone and Kaplin (2020) confirm that existential thinking and the production of meaning may be related to mental wellness. In full general, spiritual intervention programs as well contribute to mental health and well-existence (Sanyal et al., 2020). Moreover, spirituality showed a similar relationship with wellness-related behaviors and was indirectly associated with psychological well-beingness through health-related behaviors. In other words, information technology seems that spirituality is not only straight associated with psychological well-being, but also might exist chastened by health-related behavior. This is consistent with existing research (Jesse and Reed, 2004; Park et al., 2009; Unterrainer et al., 2014) and is an indication that spirituality is, in fact, a determinant of psychological well-being prior to health-related beliefs. Despite this, a cross-exclusive study cannot verify this claim straight.
The type of acquired instruction was related only to spirituality, merely non to wellness-related beliefs or psychological well-being. The relationship was stronger in the human being mind and spirit group. The type of education served as a criterion of division of students into classes based on dissimilar approaches to physical health and the human body or psychosocial wellness and the man heed and spirit, which in turn were expected to display a discrepancy in spirituality and health-related beliefs. The human relationship between the type of education and psychological well-being was expected to be non-meaning, as there were no assumptions of differences in the level of well-being betwixt those groups.
The fact that the type of education was not associated with wellness-related behavior was more intriguing. Only an indirect relationship betwixt those variables through spirituality was institute, but it had a modest size and was probably spurious. This shows that concentrating either on physical health and the man body or on psychosocial health and the human heed and spirit may non be directly related to one's healthy habits. In that location are probably other factors affecting this relationship such as instruction or civilisation in which a young person grows up.
What differentiates the two groups is how they accost their spirituality. It seems that, in the human heed and spirit group, spirituality plays a greater role in influencing psychological well-being. It can be assumed that the choice of academy studies is determined past a specific attitude toward spirituality and personal evolution. Students of the humanities and social studies should be interested in homo psychological evolution; thus, they are prone to have an interest in spirituality and internal development. Such study programs are adequately fitted to the above interests. This is a presumption which would exist worth testing in further research.
In the nowadays study, the students' historic period did non reveal any relationship to either spirituality, health-related behavior, or well-being. However, many investigations practice indicate medium to high correlations betwixt age and spirituality (Alexander et al., 1990; Zimmer et al., 2016). This might be due to the small age difference between the subjects (students between xviii and 30 years of age). It is possible that with the simultaneous examinations of adolescents, students, and middle-aged people these differences would exist pregnant.
The research findings may be a valid contribution to the give-and-take on the development of written report programs focused on improving and maintaining various dimensions of human health and well-being. Modernistic academy study programs often lack deep philosophical content, which should play a significant role in shaping the spirituality of young people. The commercialization of modern civilisation and marginalization of the humanistic educational activity have removed the need to seek the meaning of life and reflect on the purpose of life. Information technology seems that in a postmodern culture mostly focused on fulfilling the cloth needs of individuals, it is worth investing in the development of resource associated with spirituality. As demonstrated by Cotton et al. (2009), spiritual well-beingness is positively correlated with emotional and existential well-being, and information technology is also negatively correlated with symptoms of depression in adolescents. In contrast, Jafari et al. (2010) noted a significant relationship between spiritual well-existence and mental health. Therefore, the results of the present written report may discover some practical application in the surface area of didactics.
Certain limitations of the report must be addressed. Firstly, the nowadays study had a cantankerous-sectional scope, and the subjects were not randomized betwixt the groups. Thus, the results were not controlled for other inter-group variables. Further research is necessary, preferably using a longitudinal blueprint allowing for comparisons before and afterward the option of didactics type. Secondly, nosotros used only self-report methods to mensurate all variables. Every bit the survey was conducted among groups of young people who studied together for a number of years, the tendency toward social desirability might have biased participants' answers. Thirdly, although we tried to diversify the study group by conducting studies in both state and private universities from dissimilar Shine cities, still the selection of item majors and not involving others focused on the human body (eastward.g., medicine) or the human mind and spirit (east.thou., religious studies) might have affected the results. We also did not explore the relatively larger number of students from other academic centers, and the study programs of the aforementioned majors may differ in office due to institutional autonomy. Fourthly, according to many researchers mature spirituality and religiosity are characteristic of people over 30 years of age (e.g., Fowler'south theory of stages of faith development; Fowler, 1981). To gain some more reliable knowledge almost the relations between the studied constructs, it may be necessary to echo the questionnaire survey in older groups. Fifthly, nosotros did not consider such other determinants as attitudes toward lifestyle or cultural and socio-economic factors, which may affect the examined variables. Another limitation is that the tested model did not include split subscales but rather general scores of each mensurate. The decision to use an elementary model was dictated by the lack of theoretical assumptions about the relationships betwixt various measures to exist tested. In fact, more than complex associations may exist within dissimilar aspects of measured constructs. However, without theoretical assumptions, an exploratory arroyo might pb to spurious conclusions. Finally, the study results are limited to Poland only. It would be interesting to conduct research in more diverse environments.
Spirituality and health-related behaviors can play a meaning function in defining psychological well-being. Personal focus on physical wellness and the human being trunk or psychosocial wellness and the human listen and spirit, might also determine psychological well-being. However, these claims require more than research, especially involving a comprehensive and analytical approach to diverse types of health-related behavior, dissimilar forms of spirituality, and detailed aspects of psychological well-being. Farther research is likewise necessary to explore other determinants of the option of university studies, east.g., specific attitudes toward health, spirituality, and personal development.
The findings of the report supplement the existing literature by indicting that multiple pro-health behaviors are positively related to psychological well-beingness. The report provides valuable information for faculty members responsible for curriculum development – non only in the context of higher pedagogy – but also for the enhancement of the contents of their educational programs with activities encouraging young people to lead a healthy lifestyle and build a salubrious and resourceful order.
Information Availability Statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article volition be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics Statement
Upstanding review and approving was not required for the study on human participants in accord with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this report.
Author Contributions
PN and AB conceived, designed, and executed the study. MB analyzed the data. PN, AB, and MB prepared the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Disharmonize of Interest
The authors declare that the enquiry was conducted in the absenteeism of whatsoever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential disharmonize of interest.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Council of the Karol Wojtyla Found – Science Foundation in Kraków, Poland as well equally its members and trainees for their help in conducting the report and entering data into spreadsheets.
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